Original
Supplier
· Better service if things go
wrong
· Know your computer
· Can help you install via
phone
· Very easy returns
· Often more expensive
· If not local, delivery/returns take
time
Retail · See and read about product
· See working examples
· Easy returns (usually)
· Immediate purchase
· Salesmen usually don’t know
what they’re talking about
· Most expensive
· If you have any doubts about
compatibility, talk to a friend not
a salesman
Used
Equipment
· Can get pretty current
equipment
· Seller may help you with
installation/setup tips
· Private sellers tend to overprice
items—compare with new
· Caveat emptor
· Little idea how much longer part
will last
1.5HOW DO I SET UP MY COMPUTER?
Jargon
Term Definition
Manuals A set of technical texts that describe setup and maintenance of
equipment. If anything goes wrong, refer to the manuals—at least you
can get the support telephone number.
When you get your first computer, it is not exactly obvious what gets connected to what.
In fact, this is what intimidates most first-time users. I have to admit it, I feel like a little
kid sitting on the floor reading the manuals as all the cardboard and plastic lays all over
the place. But, hey! I'm a nerd! I relish in this stuff—just ask my wife!
Anyway, back to “reality”. There are basically two ways to assemble your computer: out
of the box and “piece meal”. Most would prefer the “out of the box,” because it is less
prone to problems.
1.5.1OUT OF THE BOX
When your computer is delivered, the first thing you should do is take inventory. Have
the list of features that you are supposed to get and check them off. No matter how good
a provider is, they will make some mistakes. What makes a good provider is a quick and
positive response to your problems.
Here is a list that every computer should come with:
If you have purchased some options, you should get these:
Table 7: Options' Requirements
Option What you should get
Printer Printer, power cable, parallel cable, drivers on floppy
External Modem Modem, power adapter, telephone line, serial cable, drivers on
floppy
Internal Modem Telephone line (you should see the two telephone jack ports in back
of your computer), drivers on floppy
1. Software: make certain you have CDs or floppies of all software (including
Windows and DOS!)
2. Cabling: you should have two power cables and may have a VGA cable (has a
metallic connector with 3-rows of five pins)
3. Computer (either tower or desktop), monitor, keyboard, mouse
4. Manuals (a must!)
Figure 3: Unpacking Checklist
Option What you should get
Scanner Scanner, power cable, SCSI cable, drivers on floppy (the provider
may not have installed your SCSI card, so you may see it in special
packaging)
External Tape Tape drive, power cable, data cable, drivers on floppy
Internal Tape Drivers on floppy
1.5.1.1Do you have to install computer cards?
See “Difficult Upgrades (Advanced)” (page 26) for information about how to install
computer cards.
1.5.1.2Cabling
This section will help you connect your computer.
Table 8: Computer Installation
Component Instructions
Computer · Plug power cable into back of computer.
· Plug power cable into power strip or wall outlet.
Monitor · Plug power cable into back of monitor.
· Plug power cable into power strip or wall outlet.
· Plug data (15- or 9-pin) into back of computer (make sure that it is
video).
Keyboard · Plug data cable into back of computer.
· You will find a circular connector that will mate—don't force it.
Mouse · If the data cable has a circular connector, find the mating connector on
the back of the computer.
· If the data cable is 9-pin and rectangular-shaped, plug into a 9-pin
female connector on back of computer.
Printer · Connect power cable or adapter.
· Plug power cable into power strip or wall outlet.
· Connect wide end (50-pin) of data cable into printer.
· Connect narrow end (25-pin) of data cable into female connector in
back of computer.
Modem
(External)
· Connect power adapter.
· Plug power adapter into power strip or wall outlet.
· Connect male-end of data cable into modem.
· Connect female-end of data cable into male 25-pin connector in back
of computer.
· Plug telephone cable (RJ-11) into “Line” jack on back of modem.
· Plug other end of RJ-11 cabling wall outlet.
· If you share voice/data on your telephone, plug your telephone into
“Telephone” jack in back of modem.
Component Instructions
Modem
(Internal)
· Plug telephone cable (RJ-11) into “Line” jack on back of your
computer.
· Plug other end of RJ-11 cabling wall outlet.
· If you share voice/data on your telephone, plug your telephone into
“Telephone” jack in back of modem.
1.5.1.3Remove any inserts for floppy/CD-ROM drives
Sometimes, computers are shipped with a cardboard insert in the CD-ROM or floppy
drives. Check to see if you got one of these inserts. Remove them—but, don't throw
them away! These will protect the delicate mechanisms from vibration; you will want to
use them later.
If you didn't get one of these, don't worry: most newer drives don't need them now.
1.5.2PIECE-MEAL (BUILDING YOUR OWN COMPUTER) (EXPERT ONLY)
For those that really want an adventure, building your own computer can be very... um...
“invigorating”. There really isn't a need to build a custom new computer from scratch,
since most manufacturers will be much cheaper than any single person's piece-meal
attempt.
However, you could piece together a used machine for very cheap. Therefore, you will
have to follow very specific steps in order to get things to work.
1.5.2.1Inventory: make sure you have everything!
Take inventory of all that you should have. Including the list of items for an Out of Box
installation, you will have to worry about the various cards/interfaces you will need.
Sometimes, these interfaces will come from the motherboard (MB):
Table 9: Installation from Ground-Up
Cards Description On MB?
Video Graphics or display card. Typically VGA. Maybe
I/O May have IDE/EIDE, serial, parallel, game ports. Some get
connected using ribbon cables mounted to connector plates.
If you have no other I/O on the motherboard (or modem or
elsewhere), you probably will not have to configure this card. See
the More Difficult section in What Can I Add Later?
Maybe
Memory Two kinds: DRAM and cache. The DRAM will typically be 30-
or 72-pin SIMMs and the cache will be DIP chips. If you install
cache RAM, you will likely have to configure your motherboard
—read the instructions supplied.
Yes
Cards Description On MB?
Network You will have to configure this card's DMA & IRQ. The RAM
on the card will not likely need changing. See the Difficult
section in What Can I Add Later?
Maybe
Modem You will likely have to configure the serial port on this card. See
the More Difficult section in What Can I Add Later?
No
SCSI You will have to configure this card's DMA & IRQ. See the
Difficult section in What Can I Add Later?
Maybe
Mouse A bus mouse is nice because it does not require any of your
precious serial ports. Usually, these do not require configuring.
Maybe
1.5.2.2CPU construction
Infrequently, some actually want to construct their own computers. I really don't know
why since most computer providers are much cheaper than buying the components
yourself. These providers buy hundreds (if not thousands) of components, so they get
substantial discounts.
Anyway, if you want to build your own computer, here's a brief list of instructions:
Be warned these instructions are very terse; they are only meant for instruction. If you
would like to learn more about computer construction take the advanced course.
1.5.2.3Configuration
After you have built your computer, you will need to do some system configuration. Out
of the Box computers will already have all these things done.
This should only get you to booting from the harddisk. Yes, this is a lot of work. The
next task is to install Windows and your software applications.
1. Install motherboard & connect to power supply.
2. Plug in memory SIMMs.
3. Install cabling for on-motherboard ports. These include ports and power.
4. Configure cards and plug into motherboard.
5. Set in floppy & harddrives, connect cabling & screw in.
6. Connect monitor and CPU power & power-on test. Power off.
7. Replace CPU housing.
8. Connect keyboard.
9. Power on again. Set up CMOS parameters for date, floppies and harddrives.
Figure 4: CPU Construction Steps
1. Power on and enter CMOS configuration.
2. Change drives settings (floppy & harddrive) & date.
3. Save settings and reboot (with boot floppy in drive).
4. Run fdisk. Partition harddrive.
Figure 5: System Configuration Steps
1.5.3SOFTWARE INSTALLATION [FUNCTIONING CD-ROM REQUIRED]
Some Out of the Box computers already have Windows and their software installed.
However, if you ever need to start all over again by formatting your harddisk, you will
have to follow these steps.
Table 10: Low-Level Installation
Exercise Instructions
To format harddisk: 15. Insert system floppy. Reboot.
16. Run `format c: /s'
17. Copy `config.sys' and `autoexec.bat' to drive.
18. Copy all necessary drivers to drive (especially the CD-ROM
drivers, for CD-ROM installation).
19. Remove boot floppy & reboot.
To install Windows
(from CD-ROM):
20. Insert Windows CD-ROM and type: “dir d:”15. You should
see the CD-ROM light go on. If you don't, get the drivers for
the CD-ROM and install them.
21. Type “d:setup”
22. Follow the directions.
To install Windows
(from floppies):
23. Insert the Windows Setup floppy. Type “a:setup”
24. Follow the directions.
To install Windows
Applications:
25. Insert the installation CD-ROM or floppy for that application.
26. Click “Start” button.
27. Click “Control Panel”
28. Click “Add/Remove Programs”
29. It may ask you the source (CD-ROM or floppy).
30. Follow the directions.
To install DOS
Applications:
31. Insert the installation CD-ROM or floppy for that application.
32. Follow directions as outlined by the application's instruction
manual.
If you make a mistake in the instructions above, sometimes you can go back to the
previous step. Otherwise, you have to start all over with re-formatting your harddisk.
DOS applications vary widely as to how they are installed. Windows improved this by
requiring all installation/de-installation programs to be called “setup.exe”. The new
Windows 95-compliant applications have to include a “de-install”—a way to remove the
application and its components.
15 Those who have two harddrives, you will need to do a “dir e:” or whatever drive letter your CD-ROM
was assigned.
1.6PROPER CARE OF COMPUTER (CPU, MONITOR, FLOPPIES, ETC.)
In order to maintain your computer for a long time, you will need to take care of it. There
are several things that will [irreparably] damage the sensitive components. This section
will describe several sources of danger.
1.6.1HEAT/MOISTURE/DIRT
Some of the most damaging things happen to a computer when it gets too hot, water
condenses on it or dirt gets in it.
Heat has sent many, many computers to an early grave. You might wonder: there aren't
very many moving parts in a computer, so how could heat damage it? The computer
components use chips which are little pieces of silicon (not silicone!) crystal. These
things are like shards of glass. As the chips heat up and cool, they expand and contract
like metal. Each time they expand and contract, the crystal weakens and eventually
fragments. With adequate cooling, the expansion/contraction is reduced to tolerable
levels.
To help proper cooling, ensure the following:
Unlike a lot of mechanical equipment, computers are very sensitive to dirt and moisture
— even a little bit can do quite a bit of damage. There are several computer covers which
will help you protect your computer when not in use. However, (with the exception of
keyboard covers) you will want to be sure to completely remove the cover while powered
—otherwise, your computer will overheat.
The computer can be exposed to moisture from various sources. The obvious sources are
spills, rain, etc. The not so obvious is bringing in a cold computer from outside. All
manufacturers recommend that the computer remain in the packaging and turned off until
it is room temperature.
1.6.2POWER
One of the obvious problems with computers and their sensitivity to electricity would be
“How do I protect my computer's power?” In fact there are several additional issues here.
· There's a 12” space from the back of the computer to any surface.
· Nothing obstructs airflow out of the rear fan.
· Nothing obstructs airflow into the computer.
· The vents on the top of the monitor are unblocked.
· The air blown out of the back is cool.
· The computer housing should not get warm; the monitor will get warm but
not hot.
· Make sure that the inside of the computer is cleaned every 1-2 years.
Figure 6: Proper Cooling Recommendations
1.6.2.1Leaving Computer “on”
Some professionals argue that if you are going to use a computer for lengthy periods of
time and everyday, the owner/user should leave the computer powered “on”. According
to them, this reduces the heat expansion/contraction cycles on the delicate silicon chips.
Also monitors will “remember” the places where the electron gun points if exposed over
and over. I’m sure you have seen those ATM machines which have an after-image of the
words on the monitor. The phosphor (the substance on the inside of the tube which glows
red, green or blue) will, over time, begin to degrade due to the constant exposure to
radiation. (By the way, this is why “screen savers” were invented.)
Historically, this could be quite a burden on power, and the CPU and monitor will age
more quickly. However, with the arrival of “green machines” (computers and
components that turn themselves off or go into low-power mode), this is not that big of
adeal. Still if you do not plan on using the computer for about a day or two, turn it off.
All new computers have to support either a “Green” or a “Deep Green” feature (others are
called “EnergyStar”) which will place the computer in a standby mode if unused for a
long time. In order for these machines to comply with “Green” and “Deep Green”, they
have to consume no more than a few watts.
One last note: a big disadvantage to leaving your computer running is that a powerouttage
may occur. When this happens, your system may not have been properly
shutdown (see “Shutting-Down (Turning Off) Computer” page 63). If you have any
doubts about the integrity of you power (you may not even notice it until you have a
computer), either get a UPS (see “Storms”, page 38) or turn off the computer when not in
use.
If the computer doesn’t get fried by the power surges, the power drops will cause the
computer to go down without a proper system shutdown. This will lead to file loss,
system instability and an eventual system crash (you will lose everything).
1.6.2.2Turning off/on
Turning “off” then “on” the computer should be done carefully. This is called “powercycling”.
Power-cycling can be damaging to the power switch (in which case you will
have to replace the whole power-supply unit), power supply and possibly the
motherboard, if you don't wait a few seconds between “off” and “on”.
A good rule of thumb is to count to ten (3-5 seconds) before turning the computer back
“on”. The delay helps the excess energy to dissipate and everything (like the harddrive)
to be quiescent before powering up again.
Also, some advertisers say that using a power strip will save the power supply on the
computer. They claim that most computers’ power switch can only handle being
pressed/switched a certain number of times. In this area, I would say a couple things: 1)
buying a surge-suppressor/power strip is a very good idea—it protects a great investment
and 2) out of all the computers I have owned/worked with, only one has had minor
problems with the power switch. Moral: “better to be safe, but there’s no rush”.
1.6.2.3Storms
Electrical storms and power surges are very damaging to computers. In one storm you
could lose everything in your computer. Even storms that don't pass overhead can strike
elsewhere and sear the power lines to your house. Additionally the power that comes into
the house is very “dirty”—it has a lot of variance in power, power surges and spikes.
How do you reduce probability of damage through power variances? There are a few
things that you can do:
Table 11: Options for Protecting Computer from Lightning
Option Description Reliability/Ease
Unplug the
Computer
When not in use or
during a storm, leave
the computer
unplugged.
· 100% reliable.
· Can be a pain.
· Should be done during vacations.
Surge
Suppressors
A power distribution
box that has outlets for
computer, monitor,
printer, etc.
Often the
manufacturers claim a
certain range of
suppression or “cleanup”.
· You get what you pay for: expect to pay $50
minimum.
· Less than $50 are simply power strips.
· No surge suppressor warrants against
lightning 100%.
· More reliable than without suppressor. No
maintenance.
Option Description Reliability/Ease
Uninterruptable
Power
Supply
(UPS)
There are many UPS
brands and they are all
pretty reliable.
· They clean up the input power from the
outlet.
· They maintain a constant voltage and cycle,
extending the life of your computer's power
supply.
· They have a large capacity battery (typically
lead-acid gel).
· If you have a “brown out” or “black out”, the
supply immediately kicks-in for as long as
necessary to save your work.
· Each supply is rated for a certain number of
watts. This will determine the amount of
time you have to save your work.
· Some have a port in the back that can be
connected to the computer which tells the
computer about the power and whether the
computer should shutdown.
· Having a UPS is becoming more and more
reasonable. Considering the investment, this
is very attractive.
· Very reliable.
· Getting cheaper ($100- 400).
· Relatively low maintenance.
· Some UPSs isolate the computer from the
outlet's power, thus ensuring power's quality.
1.6.3VIRUSES
More and more computer viruses are becoming a serious problem—especially for those
who get software from bulletin boards (BBSs, a modem-connected service which shares
programs, tools and notices) and the Internet (a world-wide network that avails us to more
information than ever before).
What are viruses? Viruses are computer programs that vindictive people write as a “joke”
or for revenge. What do they do? Most of the time, they are intended to harm other
software and sometimes your computer's hardware. It used to be impossible to harm
computer hardware with software, but with the new complex computers we have now, it
not only can happen—it does happen.
How do they get “transmitted”? Here are few ways: downloading programs from BBSs or
the Internet, using an unknown floppy (from a friend or company), email, etc. Even
normal companies have accidentally transmitted some in their software releases.
Viruses take many forms, but the intent is clear—replicate and destroy. There are many
programs on the Internet (for free) and for purchase. They range in reliability from very
good to very poor. Most will actually disinfect (or remove) the viruses if they can from
your system.
Table 12: Virus Checkers
Virus Checker Reliability Cost
Microsoft Poor (Part of Plus! Pack)
Norton Adequate $50-100
Invircible V. Good (requires expert) (free)
McAfee VirusScan Very Good $50-100
(others??)
One piece of advice I would like to pass on here: always make sure that the virus
checking software is in original packaging. This means that you should make sure that
the plastic wrap is intact and that you have software that is intact. There have been
occasions when people have bought an infected (or what they thought was) virus checker
—only to hate the day they got the machine. If you cannot be assured that the software is
intact, don’t buy it!
1.6.4SYSTEM MAINTENANCE
In order to keep your computer running efficiently there are several maintenance things
that need to be done periodically. Unless you have specific software to do this, you will
have to do it manually. Over time, if not properly maintained, you will notice lost drive
space, slower performance, or even lost data.
First of all, plan where you will store your private data, and make sure that it gets there.
In Windows 95, there is one directory (a folder of information) which is called “My
Documents”. Microsoft, by default, will place your Word, Excel, etc. files in there. If
there are several people using the computer, you may want to create directories (folders)
under “My Documents” with each user's name. This way, when you backup your
computer, you know what to backup and what not to backup (you don't need to backup
program files or Windows applications).
1.6.4.1Disk verification/defrag
As you use the computer, things are inevitably going to get a little out of whack: files
don't closed properly, programs crash, files get splashed all over the disk. Don't worry
this is actually normal for DOS and Windows! It's not great or the way things should
work, see, just normal. There are two tools that help keep the disk file system working
efficiently: “Scandisk” (or “chkdsk”) and “Defrag”.
Scandisk (was called “chkdsk”, short for “check disk”, anciently) goes through all the
files and directories and makes sure that everything “makes sense”. Typically you can
run this on “autopilot” (no prompting) if you wish. Please note that you will want to turn
off screen savers and power control (if you have any). They will force Scandisk to start
all over again each time a screen saver is called up or power saving is engaged.
Defrag is a tool that looks at your files and directories for “splattering”. Think of it like
this:
As you add and delete files, the disk gets “spotty” and has holes where no data resides.
Naturally, the operating system just fills in the holes with files. Often the files don't fit
exactly, so half the file may be in one part of the disk and the remainder elsewhere.
Fortunately, how the files are stored on the disk is hidden from you, so you don’t have to
worry about losing your data. The only thing you will notice is that the computer will
take longer and longer to do simple tasks. What would help is to periodically “rearrange”
the disk.
This is what Defrag does: it finds the files and directories that are splattered and makes
room enough to store them in one piece on the disk.
1.6.4.2Cleaning temporary files (Windows, Netscape, AOL...)
As you are working with Windows Applications, these programs use a lot of “scratchpad”
files called temporary files. There are lots of reasons to have temporary files— most
of the time it's for speeding up processing so you don't have to wait. Unfortunately, these
files don't always get erased. Several programs use these files, but some of the biggest
hogs are Word, Excel, PowerPoint, NetScape, AOL and CompuServe.
So, every so often, look in all “temp”, “tmp” or “cache” directories. Often you can
simply erase them, as long as you are not running any other application. However, keep
in mind that while NetScape and AOL (and other Internet software) store these files, it
helps speed up looking at images.
Imagine a large egg carton that has 10x10 cups. You have a hen house that
produces 3-10 eggs per day and you want to keep the eggs in the carton, but you
have to fill the cups left-to-right and top-to-bottom, filling in empty slots with
new eggs. Of course, you want to know how old each egg is, so you stamp the
date on each one.
Suppose in the course of a week you get the following batches of eggs: Day #1: 5
eggs, Day #2: 3 eggs, Day #3: 7 eggs, Day #4: 6 eggs, Day #5: 4 eggs, Day #6: 8
eggs and Day #7: 4 eggs. Also beginning with Day #2, you eat four eggs per day,
picking the eggs randomly.
Before long, eggs with the same date are not next to each other. The logical thing
to do is periodically rearrange the eggs so that all like-date eggs are together.
Figure 7: Egg Allocation Example
1.6.4.3Disk compression
If you start running out of disk space, you can get another harddisk or use the disk
compression tools—that often helps double the amount of available disk space (e.g. a
200MB free harddisk looks like 400MB). Microsoft includes one in their “Plus Pack”
called “DriveSpace”.
How it works is: each file is—as it is saved—run through a special program that
“squeezes out” the redundancy in the data. Pictures, texts, even programs have a lot of
redundancy. The new file is a fraction of the original size but does not require as much
space on the disk. Often, the average new file size is one half of the original. Therefore,
the drive appears to have almost doubled in size.
However, there is a noticeable cost. You system will run slower. Some claim that using
disk compression will increase performance; this may have been true a couple years back
but not any more. Also, if you have any problems with your disk, your compressed data
will likely be 100% lost. In order to uncompress the data after it has been compressed,
there are special pieces of data placed in the file which are like keys to unlock and
uncompress the data. If anything goes wrong, these keys will likely get damaged and
everything is lost.
Once you have decided to compress your disk, you will include running the compression
utilities as part of your maintenance cycle. Of the maintenance items, this is perhaps the
slowest and most time-consuming.
1.6.4.4Empty Trashcan
Windows 95 has a little safety feature that ensures that all harddisk files don’t get thrown
away immediately when you delete them. Instead they get moved into the “trashcan”.
Every so often, you will need to empty this can by right-mouse-button clicking the
trashcan icon and selecting “Empty trash” menu item.
To view what’s in the trashcan, double-click the icon. You can also delete items (for real
this time) by selecting what you want to toss and pressing <Delete>. Again, anything
tossed from the trashcan is destroyed for real.
Anytime you delete something on a floppy or network, it will not be saved in a trashcan.
Rather, it’s gone for good.16
1.6.5WHEN DO I UPGRADE?
On one hand you could wait and get the best computer; on the other, you get the best
available now; and lastly, you could add what you need to what you already have. The
problem with the first approach is that you will be waiting forever—each generation
bettering the previous. The problem with the second is you will be paying premium $'s
that will be obsolete that day after you order it. And, the problem with the third is that the
16 There are recovery programs that will find and repair DOS files. Windows 95 files also can be recovered
this way, but network files are always lost when you delete them. This is a good reason to save backups of
all files.
programs currently written will always need the best or latest hardware. What do you

Nevertheless, there is a general rule of thumb. Ask yourself: “What am I going to do with
it?”
1.3.1DEPENDS ON USE
Most computer applications are categorized into five or six groups. The table, below,
shows the application, the associated computer setup name and the price range.
Table 2: Computer Categories and Prices
Application5 Examples Computer Category Price Range
Basic typing, database, email Basic/Middle $700-1200
Netsurfing web browsing/design, gen.
business
Middle/Advanced $1000-1500
Programming C/C++, Java, school Advanced $2000-3000
Multimedia/VR6 moving graphics, rendering Advanced/Advanced+ $2500-4500
Network Server service to other computers Server $3000-7000
1.3.2SYSTEM CONFIGURATIONS
When looking at system configurations (see table below), several things are “gimme's”
(typically part of the package). First, I promise that they will give you a keyboard! Other
things like a mouse, graphics card/monitor, power supply, case, etc., are part of the
package. Usually you don't have to worry about the number of watts the power-supply
offers or the kind of keyboard—unless you want something special.
The Server configuration may not look as “souped-up” as you might expect. Remember
that the server is not intended to assist the user directly: it is meant to serve other
computers on a network. You probably will not ever need a server for your home. I only
mention it here (along with the “minimum” configuration) for a point of reference.
Lastly, a real problem with creating something like this—it becomes out of date very
quickly. Please note that I wrote this in Sept. 1996. It became dated by Oct. 1996. (Yes,
I am serious!) This only for a guide; please scale accordingly or go ask someone: “I’d
like to buy a computer. What should I get?”
recommend getting a Computer Shopper Summary or Consumer Reports. Here’s another little trick: before
buying, call the support lines and just talk to them about they computer—ask them anything about it. If you
like them, buy it.
5 Please note: “applications” here mean “uses”. Whereas, in computer jargon, an “application” typically
refers to a large program like a word processor or spreadsheet.
6 VR (if you haven't been introduced to it through all the media-hype) stands for “Virtual Reality”. Virtual
Reality is an interactive three-dimensional view of the computer “world”. Typically it is used for games,
computer aided design (CAD), etc. If you want to experience VR, go to a computer store and ask them for
a demonstration (or try out any of the new games).
Table 3: Typical Computer Configurations, by Classification
Configuration CPU7 Cache Mem. HDrive Graphics Monitor CD-ROM Sound8 Modem Printer Tape
Minimum 386/ 25 - 4MB9 200MB VGA 512K 14” (yes) - - - -
Basic 486/ 100 256K 16MB10 1GB VGA 1MB 15” 4X 8bit 28.8K - -
Middle Pentium/
100
256K 16MB 1-2GB SVGA
2MB
15” 4-6X 16bit 28.8K Inkjet -
Advanced Pentium/
160
256K 32MB 2-3GB Ex.11 2MB 17” 8X 16bit
Wave12
33.6K Inkjet 1-4GB
Advanced+ Pentium/
200
512K 32MB 2-4GB Ex.2-4MB 17” 8X 32bit
Wave
33.6K/
ISDN
Laser 2-6GB
Server Pentium
Pro/200
512K 64MB 4-9GB SVGA 15-17” CD Tower
8X
- ISDN/
T1
Laser 2-
16GB
7 The first number refers to the processor “name” and the second number is the clock. For example 486/66 is a 80486 (compatible) processor at 66MHz.
8 A sound card configuration typically includes the speakers.
9 In order to run Win95, you need a minimum of 8MB of RAM.
10 You can get just 8MB of RAM, but Win95 will not run very well.
11 “Ex.” means SVGA Excellerator card.
12 “Wave” means “wavetable”. Sound cards with wavetables have the best sound when generating sounds like a piano, drum, etc.
1.4WHAT CAN I ADD LATER?
Jargon
Term Definition
CMOS RAM There are several parts of the computer’s memory which cannot be
forgotten and cannot be retrieved from the disk: these are stored in a
special battery-powered RAM, called CMOS RAM. CMOS is a special
type of chip processing that yields very low-power memory (et.al.). So a
battery can help retain CMOS RAM for several years.
The information stored in this memory is so critical that you cannot even
begin running (“boot-up”) the computer without it. A friend’s
computer’s battery died, and it took me about 3-4 hours before I got it
working again!
Connector A physical receptacle for data transfer. Usually has several pins or holes.
You will find either pins (male) or holes (female).
DMA “Direct Memory Access.” A special mechanism with the computer
hardware to speed up data transfer. When sending data to/from a disk,
the processor would have to stop all processing if it had to transmit each
byte. With DMA, the processor tells another controller to ship the data
for it. When the transfer is complete, the controller signals the processor
that it is ready for another transfer request.
IRQ “Interrupt ReQuest.” The programs run on their merry way until
something happens externally. For example, when you type something
or move the mouse, the controllers which handle those interactions will
signal the processor indicating that data is waiting to be picked up. Each
device is assigned an IRQ number.
I RQ D evice
0 Timer
1 Keyboard
2 (special—never use!)
3 COM2, COM4
4 COM1, COM3
5 -
6 Floppy (on newer computers)
7 (parallel port, may be shared)
8 System CMOS, Realtime clock
9 -
10 -
11 -
12 -
13 Numeric data processor
14 IDE Controller
15 IDE Controller (newer computers with EIDE)
Through a glitch in most operating systems on the PC, no two devices
can share an IRQ number.
Jargon
Memory
Address
Think of a microprocessor like a “master indexer” and the memory as
the index. Every byte of memory is assigned a numeric index. The
microprocessor sends a memory address (an index number) and then
waits for the data. The memory chips receive the address and send the
data. The delay between sending and receiving will play an integral part
in your computer’s performance.
Within the last few years, processors request data much faster than the
RAM can respond.13 So, fast caches were introduced. Caches grab the
data in blocks so that 95% (or better) of memory accesses are found in
the cache.
Port A port is a connector usually in the back of the computer. There are
several ports through which the computer interacts with the outside or
the user. Some ports include: keyboard, monitor, serial, parallel,
telephone, etc.
Port Address Every device that is connected to the computer has to send and/or receive
data through a special part of the computer memory called a “port”. Port
addresses (because they are connected to devices) are very sensitive—
even looking at the data may change the device. So ports are not in the
same address space as regular computer memory.
It is very important to understand that no two devices can share port
addresses—ever! For example, if you have a problem getting your
network card and mouse to work together (when you take out the
network card, the mouse begins functioning again), you likely have a
port conflict. Usually, devices can be configured to have different
addresses: simply turn off the computer and select a different address.
“Plug & Play” is supposed to configure your ports and interrupts for you.
After a while, you probably will want to add various options or replace some components
to bring your machine more up to date. Let's face it: we all like toys! Computers are big,
expensive, useful toys. Keep in mind that unless you have a lot of experience with
playing with the computer components, you probably don't want to open your computer.
Beware, all bare components are very sensitive to static electricity—even imperceivable
zaps can nuke memory, processor or cards. Be very careful.
13 A little math: a 200 MHz Pentium typically uses 60ns RAM. If the processor were to request data as
quickly as it uses it (assuming one data access per clock tick), faster than 5ns RAMs would be needed.
That’s 12x faster than the typically configured system! The reason faster RAM is not used is because very
fast RAM is VERY EXPENSIVE.
That behind us, let's look at what we can do. I have separated the upgrades by difficulty
and have included suggestions as to where to get your new equipment.
1.4.1EASY UPGRADES
Those things that are easy to add are
essentially connected via a cable. If
you have the spare port or you want
to replace a keyboard, all you have
to do is plug in the new printer,
monitor, etc. Most computers have
keyboards and monitors, so buying
a new one will obviously mean
disconnecting the old and plugging
in the new.
Some of the things you can add or replace are 1) printer(s), 2) external modem, 3)
keyboard, 4) serial mouse and 5) monitor. If you want to add a printer or external
modem, you will have to make sure that you have a spare port. Look on the back of the
computer: if you see a 25-pin female connector (you don't see pins) that is likely a parallel
port to which you can connect a printer. A serial port is a nine- or 25-pin male (you can
see the metal pins) connector. Most modems do not work on nine-pin serial ports; and
most serial mice prefer nine-pin serial ports. If you need to get more ports see the More
Difficult section, below, for installing I/O boards.
When adding an external modem or printer, you will likely have to buy a cable as well.
Ask the salesman if you need one. Lastly, after plugging-in the new printer, modem or
monitor, you will have to “tell” Windows 95 that there is new hardware. Refer to the
“Setting-up printer/modem/monitor“ (page 59) on how to do this.
Advanced:
When working with ESD (Electrostatically-Sensitive Device), make sure you are well
grounded. Here are a few tips to ensure proper grounding:
1. Get a grounding strap (you can get them from most electronics shops for $5-$10)
and connect it to the chassis of the computer.
2. If you are standing on a rug, take off your shoes and either walk around bare-foot
or in stockings (this may sound funny—but it works!).
3. Before you touch any ESD, touch a grounding point: (if the computer is still
plugged-in—not a good idea) the computer chassis, the screw on a light switch or
outlet, or a cold water pipe.
4. Make sure that ESDs are shipped or carried in antistatic containers (all businesses
will do this for you). If you are carrying some ESDs, you can make-shift an
antistatic container by wrapping the parts in aluminum foil.
Figure 1: 25-pin Serial Port
Figure 2: Parallel & 9-pin Serial Ports
1.4.2DIFFICULT UPGRADES (ADVANCED)
The next level of difficulty requires opening the computer. What is more difficult is 1)
being careful that nothing gets “fried”, 2) configuring the new card, and 3) sometimes
rearranging other cards' positions and/or configuration. Anytime you need to open your
computer and move around or add cards or memory, be very, very careful. It takes very
little effort to “burn” with static electricity the component you’re touching. Start by
unplugging the computer. If you have any apprehension, hire someone to reconfigure
your computer.
Windows 95 has made some of this easier with “Plug & Play”. With Plug & Play
compatible cards (which most are not), you simply should be able to plug in the card and
let Windows 95 decide how to configure it. Unfortunately, you can’t always count on
this. However, if the hardware is configured correctly, Windows 95 will automatically
detect (unlike adding an external printer, modem or monitor) and reconfigure itself.
Some of the things you can add are: scanner, internal modem, new VGA card, RAM,
“Overdrive” CPU, I/O cards, and CD-ROM drive. Adding RAM or adding an Overdrive
CPU requires no additional configuration. Likewise, replacing (you can't have more than
one) the VGA card is as simple as 1) unplugging the monitor and computer (both the
cable between the computer and monitor and their power), 2) opening the computer, 3)
removing the old VGA card, 4) plugging in the new, 5) closing the computer housing,
and 6) plugging in the computer and monitor.
First make sure that your Hardware Configuration List is up to date (see page 62). You
will use it to select the available port address, DMA and IRQ. Read thoroughly the
installation instructions that come with the new card. Find out what the card needs in
order to be properly configured. See the table, below for likely needs and configurations:
Table 4: Component Configuration
Component Needs Likely Configuration
Scanner14 I/O Port, DMA, IRQ I/O Port = [Depends on manufacturer]
DMA=2-7
IRQ=2-15
Modem I/O Port, IRQ I/O
Com1
Com2
Com3
Com4
Port
3F8
378
2F8
278
IRQ
4
3/5
4
3/5
Sound Card I/O Port, IRQ, DMA
I/O Cards I/O Port, IRQ [, DMA] (Follow included instructions)
CD-ROM I/O Port, IRQ, DMA
14 Please note that Windows 95 has had no end of problems with scanners. Make sure that when (and if)
you get one it is 100% compatible with Windows 95. Then install it as soon as you get home and try it out.
One of the problems I have observed is that it may work the first time, but after turning off then on the
computer, the scanner no longer works. Lastly, get a very reputable brandname.
1.4.3MOST DIFFICULT UPDATES (EXPERT)
The most difficult reconfigurations require changing a lot more than the card or
component you're adding. Some of these things are about as complex as “Difficult
Upgrades (Advanced)“ (page 26) section in terms of adding the hardware, but you may
have to install special hardware drivers to use the new hardware. Even some hardware
requires you to change the CMOS, a critical piece of memory that allows you to run your
computer. An overview of instructions can be found in the table, below.
Table 5: More Difficult Hardware Configurations
Component How to install
Harddrive To replace a harddrive, you should backup all private information onto
floppies (or tape). Usually you will not need to backup the program
applications (e.g. Windows, Word, etc.) because you should have
original disks for those. However, if you have the time and floppies, go
ahead and backup everything. Also you must have a floppy from which
you can boot to install Windows again.
Reboot computer. When the computer displays anything about changing
BIOS or CMOS, press the appropriate keys (typically, <DEL>,<ESC> or
<F1>). Go into basic computer configuration (or wherever the harddisk
information is—you may have to search around a bit) and copy down the
numbers associated with your current drive (Heads, Cylinders, Sectors,
etc.) onto a piece of tape which you will stick to your old drive.
Turn off computer and open. Remove old drive and plug in new one.
Turn on computer and go back into CMOS configuration. Using the
numbers supplied by the manufacturer of the new drive, replace the old
numbers. Exit and save new CMOS settings. Some computers have an
“auto-harddrive detection”, use that instead.
Reboot the computer with the Windows 95 installation floppy in the A:
drive. The computer should ask you if you want to partition your drive.
Reply 'yes'. Follow the directions from there.
Note: If you have an old controller card (pre-1994), you will likely have
to replace this as well in order to use new drives with capacities greater
than 540MB. They may fix the problem that an old motherboard has
with reading these large drives. If it doesn't work, after following
directions, take it back immediately.
Component How to install
Second
Harddrive
If you want to add a second harddrive, you must have setup
documentation of your primary drive. From this documentation, you
need to know how to make it a master drive. The new, secondary drive
will be the slave drive. The new harddrive will have with its
documentation information on how to make it a slave.
After configuring the two drives, connect the new slave drive to the same
ribbon cable as the master—use the middle plaster connector. Connect
power to drive and turn on computer.
When the CMOS configuration appears, press the keys needed to enter
configuration. If your menu includes an “auto harddrive detection”,
select that and save and exit. Otherwise, go to the section where the
harddrive configuration is and change the second drive to read Type #47
and set the other numbers as defined in the documentation. Save and
exit.
Reboot computer. Partition the new disk and format.
Motherboard Turn on computer and go into CMOS configuration. Copy down
harddrives numbers. Turn off and unplug.
Open your computer and remove all the cards. You may have to remove
the harddrives as well. Remove other cables (like keyboard, speaker,
reset, LEDs, etc.). Disconnect the motherboard from power—this is hard
to do, be patient and squeeze the connectors with your fingers. Remove
the motherboard's mounting posts (either plastic or metal). Remove old
motherboard.
Move or install your RAM into the new motherboard.
Insert new motherboard (and hope that the mounting posts and slots line
up—often they don't). Connect posts, power, display card and monitor.
Turn on computer just long enough to verify that the new motherboard
works (you should get lots of errors). Turn off. Reconnect and replace
all the cards.
Turn on. Go into CMOS configuration and either select auto harddrive
detection or manually add the harddrive configuration that you had
copied down. Save. Reboot.
Component How to install
Processor If you have a “ZIFF” socket on your motherboard (it will have a lever
which will easily release the processor, replacing the old with the new
one is very easy. There are a few things you need to keep in mind:
11. Some processors use a different voltage—make sure you get the right
one.
12. Make sure that the new processor is “pin-compatible” with the older
version.
13. If you are plugging in a microprocessor “module” (a board with the
processor on it), you may have problems with the ZIFF lever.
14. You may have to change some of the RAM timings found in CMOS.
Ethernet
Card
The ethernet card usually installs with no more difficulty than installing a
sound card. However, some have RAM on the card. Follow the
directions for installation.
SCSI
Devices
SCSI is very nice for adding new drives and improved performance. A
SCSI uses a “daisy-chain” interconnection of components—the computer
is connected to the disk, the disk is connected to a scanner, and the
scanner is connected to another disk. However, not only do you have to
worry about the Port address, DMA and IRQ, you will have to be aware
of SCSI IDs.
There are eight “available” IDs on a typical SCSI. However, two
numbers are special: zero (boot device—always a disk) and seven (card
device). You can have all the devices on any other ID.
1.4.4HARDWARE SOURCES
The next big question is where do I get new hardware? There are many, many sources
you can pursue; they all fall into four groups: mail-order, original supplier, retail and
used.
Table 6: Hardware Sources
Source Advantages Disadvantages
Mail Order · Cheapist
· Tons of sources
· “Easy” returns
· Delivery within 2-3 days
· Get recommendations (lots of
“bad apples”)
· Can’t see/read about the product
· Doesn’t know your computer or
its configuration
· You’re on your own
· Returns often charged 10-15%
restocking fee
· Tricky business of interstate
commerce

Expert:
There are about five different types of processors:
· CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer). A classic CISC will have all
instructions built into ROM’ed microcode and that takes several clock cycles to
execute. They have up to two thirds unused instructions by standard processors.
Because of their complexity, they require 4x the number of transistors to do the
same processing as RISC. They generate more heat, require more power, and tend
to be slower than RISC at the same clock speed.
· RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer). A classic RISC hard-wires every
instruction and only has instructions typically used by compilers. Also more
complex instructions (like “divide”) are split into at least two opcodes. Most of the
time, programs converted from CISC to RISC will grow by about 33%.
Nevertheless, they are still faster, cooler and cheaper to make than equivalent CISC.
· Microcontroller. This is a specialized microprocessor that does specialized
operations. For example, most calculators or alarm systems use microcontrollers.
· Vector Processor. These are very fast processors that parallelize processing so that
many actions can be accomplished at the same time. The use of these processors
have diminished with the introduction of more powerful RISC/CISC processors.
· Bit Slice. These are archaic, linkable processors. Each processor would work on a
certain number of bits (e.g. a 4-bit processor). With the addition of each processor,
the computation word gets bigger (e.g. 5 4-bit processors can work with a 20-bit
word).
Jargon
Pallet A selection of colors from a possible range. Think of it like the paint on
an artist's pallet, but the colors cannot be mixed. If he wants a different
color, not on his pallet, he has to replace one he is not using. There are
several display modes with current graphics adapters supporting 16, 256,
65536 or 16 million colors. Generally more is better, but the eye can
only perceive about 40-70 thousand colors.
Resolution Refers to two things: the clarity and the number of dots appearing on the
screen. Obviously, everyone wants to get more on the screen: as the dots
get smaller, there's less “graininess” in pictures, you can show more on
the display and get more done. However, if you have a small visible area
(typical is 14” or 15” diagonal), the text will get smaller and smaller. A
resolution is usually described with two numbers: number of dots across
the display (x-axis) and the number of dots up and down (y-axis). For
example, 640x480 is 640 possible dots left and right; and 480 possible
dots up and down.
RGB Simply, Red-Green-Blue. The computer mixes these colors to yield all
the visible colors. To see what I am talking about, take a look at “white”
on your color television very closely—you will see the red, green and
blue components.
SVGA “Super VGA“ extends VGA standards to support resolutions up to
1600x1200 and support up to 16 million colors. At this resolution, you
will need a 25” monitor to read the text.
VGA “Video Graphics Adapter” is a standard which supports minimally
640x480 with 16 colors.
There are two parts of the display: the monitor (the viewable device) and the graphics
card. They are usually interdependent. If you want SVGA, you will need to get an
SVGA card and a monitor to support it. Unless you are 100% comfortable with finding
compatibilities, always buy a monitor with a new card. Of course as with everything else,
the price of displays has dropped dramatically. This will continue as new standards are
introduced and companies continue to compete for market share.
1.2.2.1Monitor Operation
How do they work? The computer reserves a section of memory (video memory) to store
the color and intensity of each dot. This information gets sent to the monitor 60-70 times
per second (called the “refresh rate”). The monitor takes this information and, using three
beams of electrons (red, green and blue) excites the phosphor inside the tube. The higher
the number for a particular color, the more electrons get sent to that dot, the brighter the
color. Please note that there’s no such thing as a “green electron”. The inner lining of the
tube has has thousands (millions?) of individual red, green and blue dots. And, the three
electron “guns” point to their assigned dots.
Older monitors expected a specific rate of incoming data. So, if you tried to display
1024x768 on an old monitor, you may not see anything at all (since they were 640x480 or
800x600 only). A “multisync monitor”, on the other hand, automatically senses the
frequency and adapts to display it. So, if you heard a “click” or some other strange noise
when you switch from plain text to graphics, don’t worry: it’s likely just adusting to meet
your needs. (However, if you hear this sound again and again or the monitor acts
erratically, quickly reboot or turn off your computer!)
1.2.2.2Health Concerns
Some have wondered about being so close to a monitor and being exposed to radiation.
In truth, CRTs use a stream of electrons to excite the colored phosphor causing it to glow.
The original CRTs emitted other radiation that included X-rays. Modern monitors have
much less radiation and have to comply with very strict government regulations.
Still there are other health risks that are still being researched. Monitors and power
supplies use very powerful magnets and electric fields: both of which have been suspect
of cancer. A minor problem is the eyes. If you stare at something closely day-in and dayout,
your eye sight will degrade—ask any opthamalogist. If you get headaches after
working with a computer for a while, consider changing ambient light, getting a larger
display, increase the distance between your eyes and the display, increase the display font
size (bigger type), or follow the “advanced” section, below.
1.2.3STORAGE LEAPS
Every letter of a document and every dot on a picture requires a place to store it. There
are several kinds of storage, and there are many storage media. Each has its advantages
and disadvantages. Often media are compared with four criteria: cost/MB (millionbytes),
permanence, capacity, access and life.
Advanced:
The clarity in a monitor is the “dot pitch” or the size of the controllable dot size (.31 is
the worst, .28 typical and .26 is the best). The larger the dot, the more unclear the
display will be. Most of the time, the smaller dot sizes will be more expensive.
However, if you know you have a good dot pitch, you may have problems with a faulty
adapter.
Also, if you see flicker from the screen it may be caused by either of two things. The
first may be caused by interference caused by florescent tubes which blink at 30Hz. If
this is the case (and you have florescent tubes), try a different refresh rate (like 72Hz).
If this doesn’t solve the problem, look carefully at single horizontal lines (you may
have to look away by about 10-20°). If the line looks like it’s jumping up and down,
then you are in interlace mode (mega-nasty to the eyes). Try a lower resolution or
different drivers.
Advanced:
I only mentioned a couple harddisk formats (EIDE and SCSI). There are (as you might
expect) so many different formats that I can’t even numerate them. All the rest really
are not that important. However, if you get the misfortune of getting one of the older
kinds (they are very slow and small capacity), you can probably find adapters for them.
But you may have trouble finding drivers for them.
The older standard of EIDE (IDE) had troubles maintaining speeds comparable to SCSI
and it’s capacity was locked in at no more than 540MB. Again if you have an older
computer (like pre-1989), you may have trouble adding the new EIDE drives without
special drivers. Fortunately, most EIDE drives include these drivers.
Table 1: Modern and Historical Computer Storage Media
Media Description Cost ($/MB) Permanence Life Capacity Access2
Card Ancient paper storage (???) Write-once 5-10 years 80 bytes Sequential
Paper Tape Ancient paper storage (???) Write-once 5-10 years (???) Sequential
Floppy Magnetic material on flexible plastic disks .10-.20 Read/writable 2-4 years 1-00MB Random
Disk Magnetic material on metal disks .25-.35 Read/writable 3-6 years 10-9000MB Random
Tape Magnetic material on flexible plastic tape .01-.05 Read/writable 2-3 years (???) Sequential
CD-ROM Laser-technology .00002 Write-once3 (indefinite) 650MB Random
DVD Digital Video Disk (like CD-ROM) (???) Write-once (indefinite) 6-12GB Random
RAM Computer chip memory 10.00 Only while
powered
10-20 years 1-64MB Random
ROM Computer chip memory 50.00 Unwritable 10-20 years 1-4MB Random
2 Access refers to how the data is retrieved. Sequential means that the computer has to start at the beginning and search until found (like trying to find your
recorded show on a rewound VCR tape). Random means that the computer can skip directly to the starting point of the data (like a card catalog).
3 Not likely writable at all. Most of the time, these are already filled when delivered. There are versions that can store data, but the tools are very expensive.
1.2.4MEMORY DUMPS
One thing that is certain: memory is a crucial part of getting performance (maximum
processor speed) from your system. Everyone wants more memory; and every memory
chip manufacturer wants to increase or control market share. Several companies
(typically foreign) have resorted in “memory dumping”—selling memory below the
actual cost of manufacture. This does three things: 1) makes memory cheaper so that we
can “soup-up” our computers, 2) forces other memory prices down, and 3) kills
competitors who can't compete.
Memory prices, in general, have dropped incredibly fast. Even the predictions have been
considered conservative compared to the actual trend. As of Sept. 1996, one could buy
memory for as low as $5/MB. Naturally, this will likely fluctuate wildly. The best time
to buy memory is middle to late summer. Don't buy memory Oct. to Jan: these are the
worst months due to the holiday seasons.
Advanced:
There are several things you need to be aware of before buying memory. First, you
can’t go wrong with faster RAM (rated in nanoseconds—lower numbers are better).
You can have big problems if you get too slow RAM. A good rule of thumb is
Pentium/90 and less can use 70ns RAM, but any faster processor should use 60ns RAM
or less.
Parity RAM vs. non-parity has long been a heated discussion. I’ll leave this up to you:
DOS and Windows will halt the processor if you get a RAM parity error. Non-parity
will not generate this error. So, I ask if you have an error and crash by the error or the
halt, what difference does it make?
EDO RAM only gains a 3-10% performance increase on the average but costs 10%
more.
Expert:
Cache RAM is typically 256KB. But due the way the 80486 and Pentium cache the
ram, you will have problems when you increase your RAM to 64MB. In order to use
64MB of RAM on these systems, you will need to replace your cache RAM to 512KB.
The Pentium Pro incorporates the cache on the chip, and there are some that have only
256KB cache RAM. I have asked on the Internet and have been assured that the
problem with the caching algorithm was fixed making 256KB sufficient for 64MB.
1.3WHAT DO I NEED?
Jargon
Term Definition
Kb, KB
Mb, MB
Gb, GB
Tb, TB
Mostly, they have the same meaning as the normal scientific prefixes,
but computer people had to change things slightly. Here is what the
individual letters mean:
K (kilo, thousand) in computerese it means 1024 or 210
M (mega, million) in computerese 1,048,576 or 220
G (giga, billion) in computerese 1,073,741,824 or 230
T (tera, trillion) in computerese 1,099,511,627,776 or 240
b bit, the smallest unit of storage either has a value of zero or one
B byte, a group of 8 bits. Since each bit can be zero or one, a byte
can have a range of 0 [0000,0000] to 255 [1111,1111].
Typically, a letter on the keyboard is stored in a byte.
With that behind us:
Kb (kilobit) one thousand bits
KB (kilobyte) one thousand bytes [often referred to as “K”]
Mb (megabit) one million bits
MB (megabyte) one million bytes [often referred to as “meg”]
Gb (gigabit) one billion bits
GB (gigabyte) one billion bytes [often referred to as “gig”]
Tb (terabit) one trillion bits
TB (terabyte) one trillion bytes
VR “Virtual Reality“. A simulated 3D world in which you can move around
and interact with things. The movie “Toy Story” is a computergenerated
VR environment.
Often, I am asked: “I want to buy a computer. What should I get?” Talk about a loaded
question. It's like my wife asking, while turning her head fashionably looking at new
hats, “Which do you like, dear?”. Klaxons go off; people scurry for the nearest exit; our
dog cowers and hides its head. While I simply (blithely?) blunder into the “danger-zone”
by answering based on the price tag.
For all the advice I have given to people about what they should get—this advice has
never been heeded. Oh, well. There honestly is no “right” or “wrong” choice: it's really
the difference between what you want vs. what you are willing to pay.4
4 I need to amend this slightly. The truth is: you will pay either now or later. There are some companies
that should absolutely be avoided at all costs. Otherwise, you will either be paying for fixes that would
never have been necessary, have a lot of “down-time” (no computer work being done due to a broken
computer), or have incessant support line calls (which most of the time they’re busy or on infinite hold),
because “this, that or the other thing” doesn’t work very well. I won’t list the bad-guys, instead I would

1.2PERSONAL COMPUTER HISTORY
In order to properly understand and appreciate the progress we have made and to
anticipate the continued evolution of the industry, let's look at the progress of the
computer. What precisely is a computer? Machines that helped people do computation
have been around for almost 150 years (Brigham Young invented a device to calculate the
number of miles a wagon traveled by counting the number of wheel rotations). There
have been all types of machines built to compute or measure various things (there’s even
one that will compute a logarithm).
Most of these machines are “analog” or value-based. So they can represent any value
between zero to one equally as well as zero to a million. An example of an analog device
is the odometer on your car (please note that these may not be true analog, but the concept
still holds). Whether you move the car one inch vs. one thousand miles, it makes little
difference—your car still retains the distance, thus further depreciating it’s value.
There was another type of machine which used a magnet-powered switch which would
close the switch when the electromagnet was turned on (this kind of switch is a “relay”).
Telegraph used crude relays. The advantage of using switches (either “on” or “off”—
called “digital”), the results would always be predictable (the value will always be zero or
one). Analog devices always have to be tuned (just try to put a different sized tire on your
car). The problem with relays is the power required and delay experienced was too great
to make them into a computational device. Early computers went a different route by
using electron (or vacuum) tubes.
Vacuum tubes have been used for power amplifiers, but they could also be used as
switches as well and would function many times faster than the relays would. The idea
was pretty simple: the tube had three plates. The first plate was the source power, the
second was the destination, and the third was the “switch.” The electrons would at the
source would gather but would not be able to get to the destination unless power was
applied to the “switch-plate.” Think of it like having scuffed your feet on the floor to
generate static electricity then getting close to something (or someone) you want to zap—
still they’re too far away. You need something to close the gap. That’s something like
what the “switch plate” does.
Memories and calculations were held and completed by turning on and off thousands of
these switches.
However, vacuum tubes still required tons of equipment and megawatts of power. The
proverbial add/subtract/multiply/divide calculator on your wrist used to take up an entire
building floor and require many megawatts.
In the mid 1950s, a special little switch was invented that has thus reshaped our history:
the transistor. The power (no pun, honestly!) in this little thing was it’s size (less than .
1”—compared to 3-4” for a vacuum tube) and its power (much less than a watt—
compared to 5-10 watts).
Modern computers are composed of millions and millions of these transistors switches.
Like the vacuum tubes, the transistors are arranged in arrays to accomplish what we ask
of them. Your computer memory alone has millions of transistors—one megabyte has
one million bytes or eight million bits. That’s more than 8,000,000 transistors!
Personal computers have been around as early as the mid-1970s. The companies
involved include Apple, Commodore, Atari, Synclair, to name a few. The first chips for
these computers only had 10-50 thousand transistors. At the time personal computers
were not taken seriously and were infrequently found in the workplace.
The first attempt to make a business-directed personal computer was by Apple when they
introduced the LisaÔ computer. That was a failure—mostly do due to the $7000 price
tag. The next was the MacintoshÔ which was better received. The growth of personal
computers did not really take off until IBM entered the market. From their open
architecture, hundreds and thousands of computer companies sprang up. All the while
technology advanced at a tremendous rate. Also, due to advances in chip manufacturing,
the prices plummeted.
1.2.1MICROPROCESSOR REVOLUTION/EVOLUTION
The microprocessor, from the onset of personal computers, has been the driving force of
hardware and software technology. There a couple primary claims to the first
microprocessor, but the concept of placing all the computing power on a single literally
was revolutionary. In fact, many of the first microprocessors (as old as 25 years!) are still
being manufactured and used as simple control units in various appliances and machines.
As the processor became more powerful, the supporting hardware and software became
more powerful and complex. Simply, a processor takes commands from memory and
does things with them. Think of it like your math teacher telling you each step to solve a
problem. These steps are repeated over and over—the computer does not learn, rather
has to follow each command issued to it the same as the day before. Here we need to
clarify a few things: processor families and clock speeds.
1.2.1.1Processor Families
Think of some kind of blender in the kitchen. It originally had a dial to select the speed:
either blend or liquefy; then, a new model of the same blender came out with buttons.
Now, the modern model has “flash” or “chop” modes that only run while you are holding
the button. These extra capabilities which may not seem all that significant are called
“features.” The sequence of blenders from the original design is called a “product
family.” Microprocessors have these families as well—in fact, they are far more crucial to
the industry than that of the blenders'. Because software was written for an old processor,
the industry does not want to rewrite the software for the new one. This is called
“backwards compatibility.”
1.2.1.2Clock Speeds
The clock is like the rhythm to a song: each word is sung to each beat; the faster the beat,
the faster we can complete the song. Generally, the processor obeys (called “executes”)
each command in a certain number of clock beats (called “clock ticks”). The faster the
clock the faster things get done.
“Wait a minute, why is the next family member faster than the first at the same clock
rate?” you might hear (e.g. the Pentium/66 is twice as fast as a 486/66). It is the aim of
each processor generation to do things faster and better than the generation before. The
80286 processor required about 50 clock ticks to complete a multiplication. The next
generation (80386) only took 10 clock ticks! Again, the more you can do within a clock
tick and the faster the clock, more can be done in less time.
You may think that naming processors with numbers might be rather sterile and boring.
Well, they are. In fact, until recently processors and chips were given numbers for names
(e.g. Z80, 6502, 68000, etc.). Now we have the Pentium and the Pentium Pro (this last
one was “quite original”). Most of the time, the numbers follow a sequence: the bigger
the number within a family, the faster/better/more complex it is. Then as time passed
individual processors could go varying speeds (the 80386 entered the market running a
dazzling 16MHz; about six months later Intel introduced the 20 and 25MHz versions,
25% and 56% faster, respectively).
1.2.1.3Faster is Better
In 1985, the primary competing processors were 8088/8086, 68000 and Z80 (these only
had 20-50 thousand transistors). These processors were considered “state of the art”.
However, if you think about the sheer speed processing we can do now, these were plain,
dog slow. For example, the Pentium/100 is easily 200x faster than the first IBM PC.
That means that the Pentium processor can run the same software as the first IBM PC but
will be blazingly faster. The latest processor (Pentium Pro) has 5.5 million transistors for
the CPU alone.
Lastly, processor prices have continued to drop. To fully appreciate this, consider: when
the Pentium/60 (60MHz version of the Pentium) was introduced to the market it retailed
for about $800 per chip. Now (if you can find them), they are less than $50 per chip. So
getting the “latest and greatest” does not always make sense. Sometimes—no—often,
one- to two-year old technology is the best priced, most reasonable and all that we really
need [this is my opinion, of course].

What is a computer? I guess the easiest way I can explain it is as a little machine that
follows very specific instructions over and over. A computer cannot learn and, unless
told to do so, won’t respond to anything. Think of it as a very dumb dog that you have to
teach to catch a ball every day and every time you want to play.1
Computers do very complex math. Mind you, it is always related to the basics: add,
subtract, multiply and divide. But as anyone who has had algebra and calculus will tell
you: if you do enough of these basics, you can get approximations of more sophisticated
math that are pretty close to reality. Computers do this math very quickly. Often these
calculations are done in millions per second. Imagine multiplying 10 million pairs of
multi-digit numbers per second. I have a hard enough time myself doing a 3-digit
multiplication in less than a minute.
Computers can store a vast amount of information and retrieve it at extraordinary speeds.
When everything works correctly, this data is as fresh and unblemished by time as when
it was first stored. It can record information about everything (given it has sufficient
storage capacity). While this may not seem to be a great achievement, think about this:
when you last went to the store, how much did you pay for each item you bought?
Computers can store this kind of information a lot better than we can recall it. Also, one
of those CD-ROMs that we see so frequently can store the entire Encyclopedia Brittanica
along with photos. (Please note that if you buy their CD-ROM set, it has more than just
text and photos. So, the set has several CD-ROMs.)
What have computers done for us? Consider the following:
1. Made the world incredibly smaller by facilitating communications.
2. Advanced science and medical discovery more in 10 years than in centuries of
history.
3. Designed cars, roads, cities, clothing, etc.
4. Tested transportation long before the prototypes ever left their studios.
5. Exploded our imaginations with color and virtual reality.
6. Controlled our market-place and caused the “Black Monday” crash.
7. Hinted that a passenger aircraft over Saudi Arabia was an enemy and
recommended firing on it.
8. Opened freedom of speech to areas all over the world via the Internet.
9. Abetted fraud, laundering and gambling.
10.
1 Today (12/4/96), I read plans to make machines “more intelligent”. A quote from Bill Gates, Microsoft
CEO: “If a human assistant works for you over a period of years, your efficiency in working with him gets
dramatically better and he can anticipate your interests and you can use shorthand ways of communicating.
With a computer today, even if you use it for a couple of years, you are basically working with it the exact
same way. It's not learning in the way a human assistant would. On the simplest level, the next generation
of computers would learn the kind of information you like to see. They're going to know how you are
reacting to things, and essentially put together, for example, the kind of newspaper that meets your
interests.” (Investor's Business Daily 3 Dec 96 A8)
The list goes on and on. The computer has done a lot to shape the modern world—some
good and some bad. In all, it has been a great blessing when properly used. What can
computers do for you? Well, hopefully, this text will show you.
1.1WHAT PIECES ARE FOUND IN A COMPUTER?
Jargon
Term Definition
Adapter Most of the time it refers to a card that plugs into the motherboard
adding special capabilities not originally found on the computer. Other
times it refers to tools to convert one connector type to another.
Cables A thick wire that connects the computer to the external device or power.
Cache An interface between the CPU and the memory (RAM and ROM). It
helps the CPU keep running even though the RAM may be too slow. It
does this by keeping a copy of what the processor has read/written.
Card Slot The slots found on the PC motherboard may be one of five types: ISA,
EISA, MCA, VESA & PCI.. Slower adapters (like I/O boards) can be
ISA. But for the best performance, use VESA or PCI for harddrives,
CD-ROMs or Video adapters.
Cards An option (adapter) which is a printed circuit board that plugs into the
motherboard.
CD-ROM A disk made of plastic and aluminum which can store up to 650MB of
data. Usually these disks cannot be written to, instead they often are
used to distribute software from companies.
CPU Central Processing Unit. The “brain” of the computer. It executes
commands which, eventually, we see as a response to our input.
Without the CPU, the computer is nothing.
Disk A storage medium to keep data while the computer is turned off.
DRAM RAM that uses a device called a “capacitor” to store each bit. The
problem with this is the capacitor loses the charge very quickly.
Therefore, the DRAM has to be “refreshed” to keep the data valid. This
is thus far the cheapest RAM.
DVD The next generation CD-ROM which will store 10-20x the current
capacity.
Floppy A disk that has flexible media (the actual material onto which the data is
recorded). The material and flexibility is a lot like that of a cassette tape.
Glidepoint A mouse-replacement that has a little pad that you can use to move the
mouse pointer. Simply glide your finger over the surface and the pointer
will move. To “click”, tap the pad. To “double-click” double-tap the
pad.
Harddisk A medium to store data for the computer while the power is out. It uses
a hard material (typically aluminum).
Keyboard A typewriter-like tool that has keys. Sends letters or commands to the
computer.
Microprocessor
A CPU that composes only one chip. Some CPUs may actually be
several square feet is size; but, the microprocessor is designed to be
100% self-contained in a single chip.
Modem A device that will let your computer talk to other computers through the
telephone line.
Jargon
Monitor The CRT or display that shows the words, graphics, etc., to the user. It
is a critical part of a user’s interface.
Motherboard A printed circuit board that has (at least) slots to connect cards into.
Often, they also include a CPU and memory.
Mouse An input device which has one to three buttons and when you move it, it
causes the arrow in a Windows display to move.
Open
Architecture
The original computer companies hid their secrets from competitors by
keeping their architecture closed (proprietary). IBM made the IBM PC
an open architecture, allowing anyone to make options for it.
Parallel A type of port which transmits and receives several bits of data at a time
(typically 8 bits). Typically used to connect to printers.
Ports Connectors (usually in the back of the computer) which connect to
external devices (e.g. mouse, keyboard, modem, printer, display, etc.)
Power supply A basic component in the computer that converts the outlet power into
power that the computer can use.
Printer An external device that takes commands and data from the computer to
place on paper. There are several types of printers: daisy-wheel, matrix,
laser, thermal, inkjet, and plotter.
RAM “Random Access Memory“. A pool of storage for the CPU. It can be
written to/read from in any order (unlike a VCR tape which is serial—
you have to wind to the place you want). There are several types of
RAM: SRAM, DRAM, EDO-RAM.
ROM “Read Only Memory“. Memory that has imprinted in it data and
programs for the CPU which cannot be erased or written to.
Scanner An external device that is able to optically read in printed material—kind
of like a copier, but it stores the image on the computer instead.
Serial A type of port that transmits only one bit at a time. In order to send a
byte of data, the data has to be “turned on its side” and send out bit by
bit.
SRAM RAM that does not “lose its mind” if not refreshed. This is typically
used in caches. It tends to be much more complicated than DRAM and
thus much more costly.
Surge
protector
A device that will isolate your computer from outlet power problems
(spikes and noise).
Trackball A mouse replacement that is a small box with a ball in the center. You
roll the ball in the direction you want the pointer to go.
Trackpoint A mouse replacement with a little rubber post between the “g” and “h”
keys on some laptop computers. Gently push the post in the direction
you want the mouse pointer to go.
UPS “Uninterruptable Power Supply”. This is a box that is like a surge
protector but will keep you going even if you lose power. You can plug
your computer into. If you have a brown- or black-out, this unit will
keep you running for 3 minutes to an hour (certainly enough time to save
your work and shutdown the computer).